How much does drug abuse cost the US economy per year? -

How much does drug abuse cost the US economy per year?

The current estimated economic cost of substance abuse disorder in the United States is approximately $3.73 T annually, including $0.50 T in tangible measured costs and $3.23 T in intangible costs, a figure that consumes the equivalent of the combined GDP of 45 of the 50 US States and is larger than the combined GDP of

How much money is in the drug trade?

The trade in illicit drugs is estimated to be worth $400 billion a year, and it accounts for 8% of all international trade, according to the United Nations.

What are positives of drugs?

Drugs tap into that wiring and modify our feelings of pleasure, as well as our movement, emotion, thinking and motivation.) Some drugs can have two to 10 times the impact of natural behaviours in triggering our pleasure and reward centre. This intense response encourages repeated use of a drug.

How big is the drug economy?

“With estimates of $100 billion to $110 billion for heroin, $110 billion to $130 billion for cocaine, $75 billion for cannabis and $60 billion for synthetic drugs, the probable global figure for the total illicit drug industry would be approximately $360 billion.

How does drugs affect the economy?

Economic Costs This value includes: $120 billion in lost productivity, mainly due to labor participation costs, participation in drugabuse treatment, incarceration, and premature death; $11 billion in healthcare costs for drug treatment and drug‐related medical consequences; and.

How big is the illegal drug trade?

Spending on illegal drugs this year: “With estimates of $100 billion to $110 billion for heroin, $110 billion to $130 billion for cocaine, $75 billion for cannabis and $60 billion for synthetic drugs, the probable global figure for the total illicit drug industry would be approximately $360 billion.

What is the cost of the war on drugs today?

Economic impact. Since 1971, the war on drugs has cost the United States an estimated $1 trillion. In 2015, the federal government spent an estimated $9.2 million every day to incarcerate people charged with drug-related offenses—that’s more than $3.3 billion annually.2018-06-27

What is the purpose of war on drugs?

How much is the drug trade worth in the United States?

Drug trafficking – the global illicit trade involving the cultivation, manufacture, distribution and sale of substances which are subject to drug prohibition laws is estimated to be a $32 billion industry.

How did the war on drugs affect society?

Criminalisation of drug users, excessive levels of imprisonment, and punitive sentencing practices, including mandatory sentencing, the death penalty and enforced ‘drug detention centres’, are some of the unintended negative consequences of the 50 year ‘war on drugs’, a policy with direct impact on the vulnerable, poor

How much does drug use cost the US?

The estimated cost of drug abuse in the United States—including illegal drugs, alcohol, and tobacco—is more than $740 billion a year and growing, according to data reported by the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA.2020-09-15

What is the purpose of war on drugs in the Philippines?

According to former Philippine National Police Chief and Senator Ronald dela Rosa, the policy is aimed at “the neutralization of illegal drug personalities nationwide”. Duterte has urged members of the public to kill criminals and drug addicts.

How much does the US spend on the drug war?

In 2015, the Drug Policy Alliance, which advocates for an end to the War on Drugs, estimated that the United States spends $51 billion annually on these initiatives, and in 2021, after 50 years of the drug war, others have estimated that the US has spent a cumulative $1 trillion on it.

How much is the illegal drug trade worth UK?

£9.4 billion: size of the illicit drug market People in England and Wales spend £9.4 billion on illicit drugs annually. To put that in perspective, the UK agriculture industry comes in at £10.4 billion.2021-03-31

How do drugs help the economy?

The illicit drug trade also provides employment for laboratory operators, wholesale distributors, money launderers, retail distributors and runners. Such employment opportunities can be important in economic terms for countries in which there is illicit crop cultivation as well as high levels of unemployment.

How do drugs affect our society?

Drug abuse costs the nation more than $120 billion per year in lost productivity, according to The National Drug Intelligence Center (NDIC). 5 Included in that lost productivity are reduced labor participation, incarceration, premature mortality, hospitalization, and participation in treatment programs away from work.2020-09-15

What are the effects of drugs to the country?

The consequences of illicit drug use are widespread, causing permanent physical and emotional damage to users and negatively impacting their families, coworkers, and many others with whom they have contact. Drug use negatively impacts a user’s health, often leading to sickness and disease.

How drugs affect the country?

Moreover, absenteeism, lost productivity, and increased use of medical and insurance benefits by employees who abuse drugs affect a business financially. The economic consequences of drug abuse severely burden federal, state, and local government resources and, ultimately, the taxpayer.

The Costs of the War on Drugs | Criminal Legal News

Filed under: War on Drugs , Costs . Location: United States of America . Political efforts have been underway to withdraw troops and bring an end to America’s military involvement in Afghanistan. While this two-decade old conflict is considered by many to be the longest war in U.S. history, that ignores a much costlier and deadlier battle

How Much Does the War on Drugs Cost? – Monarch Shores

More drug abusers are in jail, in hospitals, and in courts and drugs are still easily attainable. This has left many wondering, how much does the war on drugs cost and is it worth it? The drug business poses violence, child neglect, and organized crimes. While much of the effort may be focused on criminalization, something alarming is happening.

The U.S. has spent over a trillion dollars fighting war on

June 2021 marks the 50th anniversary of the war on drugs. Since 1971, America has spent over a trillion dollars enforcing its drug policy, according to research from the University of Pennsylvania.

PDF The War on Drugs: Wasting billions and undermining economies

The costs of the war on drugs to the economy 1 Billions spent on drug law enforcement Global spending on drug law enforcement In order to accurately assess the level of expenditure on drug law enforcement, it is important to recognise the difference between proactive and reactive spending The

The Longest War: The United States' 40-Year War on Drugs

The total federal war on drugs cost for 2017 was over $28.8 billion and the war on drugs cost for 2018 was over $29.4 billion. From January 1, 2019 through April 1, 2019, nearly $3.8 billion was spent at the federal level, with almost twice that spent at the state level.

41 Surprising War on Drugs Statistics [The 2021 Edition]

Cost of the War on Drugs 5. The United States has spent a total of $1 trillion on the war on drugs so far. (Source: American Progress, Vox) The amount of money spent on war on drugs in the US since the early 1970s is estimated to be an eye-watering $1 trillion.. Daily US war on drugs spending just for the incarceration of prisoners for drug-related crimes was $9.2 million in 2015, amounting to

How Much of Your Money Is Wasted in the War on Drugs

How Much of Your Money Is Wasted in the War on Drugs. Enforcing the drug control system costs at least $100 billion a year. Federal spending in the United States alone totals around $15 billion annually and according to one estimate, state and local drug-related criminal justice expenditures amount to $25.7 billion.

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Harvard Economist: The Stunning Cost of the War on Drugs

In sum, prohibition may reduce drug use to some degree, but at least part of that reduction is a cost. And prohibition has numerous adverse side effects, such as increased crime and corruption, greater HIV infection, diminished civil liberties, forgone tax revenues, and significant direct costs for police, judges, prosecutors, and prisons.

Ending the War on Drugs: By the Numbers – Center for

Since 1971, the war on drugs has cost the United States an estimated $1 trillion. In 2015, the federal government spent an estimated $9.2 million every day to incarcerate people charged with drug

AP IMPACT: After 40 years, $1 trillion, US War on Drugs

MEXICO CITY (AP) — After 40 years, the United States’ war on drugs has cost $1 trillion and hundreds of thousands of lives, and for what? Drug use is rampant and violence even more brutal and wi

Drug War Statistics – Drug Policy Alliance

In 1971, Nixon declared a “War on Drugs,” accelerating a war on our communities and causing tremendous loss: millions arrested, incarcerated, or under surveillance (particularly communities of color); hundreds of thousands lost in preventable overdose deaths; and billions of dollars spent on ineffective, fear-based policies.

The cost and consequences of the war on drugs

The cost and consequences of the war on drugs. The “war on drugs” was first declared by U.S. President Richard Nixon in 1971, with the goal of eradicating what he viewed as the growing problem of drug addiction. Since then, it has had dire consequences, including the exacerbation of human rights violations and erosion of democratic

Economics of Drug Policy and the Drug War | Drug Policy Facts

“Important findings from Figure 2 include the fact that (1) total direct social costs associated with alcohol ($7,427.5 million) are more than double those for all illicit drugs combined ($3,565.5 million); (2) direct alcohol-related health care costs ($3,306.2 million) are nearly three times as high as for all illicit drugs, excluding cannabis

How Much is the War on Drugs Really Costing Us?

The costs of the war on drugs. Taxpayer money, meant to fight criminal activity and to cover drug treatment, has been funneled to law enforcement agencies, private prison companies, and many other organizations. The payoff, from the point of the taxpayer, has been lackluster. Millions of people are in state and federal prisons on drug charges

Misguided "War on Drugs" Has Cost Taxpayers $1 Trillion

After 40 years, the United States’ war on drugs has cost $1 trillion and hundreds of thousands of lives. Drug use is rampant and violence even more brutal and widespread, according to a Fox News report issued last year. The waste of taxpayer dollars is staggering, and the cost of human lives is truly depressing.

The War On Drugs: 50 Years Later : NPR

The War On Drugs: 50 Years Later NPR examines the costs and effectiveness of the United States’ War on Drugs since its declaration on .

Doc Series 'The Trade': The War On Drugs Costs The U.S

The high number of deaths are not solely in the U.S. Throughout Mexico, an estimated 200,000 people have been killed or have disappeared as a result of the War on Drugs, with the number of murders

After 50 Years Of The War On Drugs, 'What Good Is It Doing

Wounds left by the drug war go far beyond the roughly 20.3 million people who have a substance use disorder. The campaign — which by some estimates cost more than $1 trillion — also

The War on Drugs: Racism and the Consequences of the War

Regarding trafficking for crack cocaine in 2020, the War on Drugs black people made up 77.1% of offenders, 15.9% were Hispanic, and 6.3% were white.. The Consequences of the Policy. Decades of unbalanced drug-related War on Drugs black people incarcerations have set a notion among the less-enlightened population that African American criminals are involved in drug dealing, trafficking, and use

The Cost Of Crime In Jail: The War On Drugs – 400 Words | Cram

The cost for all the people in jail is costing tax payers millions. The use of drugs in the world is estimated 230,000 million people 90% are not classed problematic (1). The number of people need classed with drugs all need help with their problem. The War on Drugs is costing us millions and the people need.

PDF Counting the Costs of The War on Drugs

The Alternative World Drug Report, 2nd edition The Count the Costs initiative: aims and activities Documenting the costs The Count the Costs initiative aims to highlight the negative impacts of the war on drugs in key policy areas: security, development, human rights, public health, stigma and discrimination, crime, economics, children and young

War on drugs – Wikipedia

The war on drugs is a global campaign, led by the U.S. federal government, of drug prohibition, military aid, and military intervention, with the aim of reducing the illegal drug trade in the United States. The initiative includes a set of drug policies that are intended to discourage the production, distribution, and consumption of psychoactive drugs that the participating governments and the

Drug War Cost Clock updated for 2011 – Action America

For 2011, the federal portion of the Drug War budget will amount to. $23.44 billion. You must realize that we have no way of knowing just how much the cost of the items that were removed from the drug control budget have increased. But, since the cost of everything has increased, we know that those costs have also increased.

PDF Costs of the War on Drugs – Fraser Institute

Costs of the War on Drugs 2 Costs of the war on drugs President Nixon declared war on drugs more than 25 years ago. Since then, hundreds of heads of state and senior politicians have agreed that drug issues rank ﬁ rst in the problems facing many countries. Yet, drug problems have intensiﬁ ed and proliferated.

How Much Does The 'War On Drugs' Cost?

Naturally, quantifying how much the pursuit of the ‘war on drugs’ costs depends on how you define it. Firstly, there are the direct costs associated with the current approach, “these reflect the diversion of resources towards the management of drug use”, which according to Dame Carol Black’s 2021 review amount to nearly £9 billion

What Is The Cost Of The War On Drugs? [Comprehensive Answer]

Making Economic Sense | Drug Policy Alliance

The drug war is responsible for trillions of wasted tax dollars and misallocated government spending, as well as devastating human costs that far outweigh the damage caused by drugs alone. The United States’ unrivaled incarceration rate is a constant financial drain, causing an immeasurable loss in workforce productivity, and puts a strain on scant legal and law enforcement resources.

The War on Drugs: The Cost to Americans Essay – EssayMojo

The War on Drugs: The Cost to Americans Essay. The War on Drugs has been one of the most costly and futile wars ever waged by the United States. The negative consequences are felt in every corner of society, from our inner cities to rural communities in Appalachia. It’s also a major contributor to our overcrowded prisons, which now house 25%

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Drug Crime Statistics | Drug-Related Crimes | War on Drugs

Drug Crime Statistics. . Shelby Wall. Over 60 percent of people arrested for non-drug crimes test positive for at least one drug. That doesn’t necessarily mean that drug use causes criminal behavior, but there’s no question that many people behave differently under the influence. Or that many people with substance use

The Human Cost of the War on Drugs – YouTube

Ethan Nadelmann speaks at Oslo Freedom Forum 2012The Human Cost of the War on Drugswww.OsloFr[email protected]#OsloFFEthan Nadelmann explains the devasta

The True cost of the War on Drugs? – Liberate-America

Since 1971, the war on drugs has cost the United States an estimated $1 trillion. In 2015, the federal government spent an estimated $9.2 million every day to incarcerate people charged with drug-related offenses—that’s more than $3.3 billion annually. 19. State governments spent another $7 billion in 2015 to incarcerate individuals for

The high cost of the war on drugs | Stanton D. Levenson, P

Forbes estimates that America spends $78.5 billion per year on the war on drugs. This has barely made a dent in drug crimes and the opioid epidemic has now reached crisis levels. The illegal drug trade also remains the most profitable illegal activity in the U.S. Overdose deaths in America tripled over the last 20 years or so.

The Economic Consequences of the War on Drugs

The Real Cost. The real cost of the war on drugs is far greater than the $1.5 trillion that has been spent by the federal government. Millions of human lives have been lost. Human rights violation has become a norm in many of the countries. Also, the number of people dead in countries like Mexico is much higher than in Iraq and Afghanistan

U.S. drug war has met none of its goals – NBC News

After 40 years, the United States’ war on drugs has cost $1 trillion and hundreds of thousands of lives, and for what? Drug use is rampant and violence even more widespread. IE 11 is not supported.

Was the War on Drugs Effective? | Laguna Treatment Hospital

Billing the War on Drugs. How could it cost the country with the best technology, military intelligence, and worldwide influence literally tens of billions of dollars to crack gangs and smuggling rings in developing countries? The Associated Press dug deep and found that the government increased budgets for programs that were ineffective in

PDF A Century of Losing Battles: The Costly and Ill-Advised

alone, the war on drugs cost federal and state governments more than $30 billion (Drug Sense 2006), not including the costs of building and maintaining prisons, the number of which has quadrupled in the past 20 years. 5 Despite these massive efforts and expenditures, no evidence supports the conclusion that

Racism in the War on Drugs | Addiction Treatment | Gateway

The War on Drugs Today. The continuing war on drugs has caused the United State’s prison population to skyrocket. In 1972, 161 out of 100,000 citizens were incarcerated. By 2007, the number reached a peak of 767, and in 2021, that number is 639 per 100,000.Even with the slight decline, the amount of people in prison is almost four times as high as it was 50 years ago.

The Drug War and the Impact on Corrections – An Overview

A concise overview of how the War on Drugs has affected corrections in the United States Introduction Policy is rarely if ever an inexpensive undertaking. While the comparative costs may differ from policy to policy one element remains constant: it isn’t free. The criminal justice system is not except from such financial burdens.

Costs and Results of Prohibition/The Drug War | The DEA

However, the drug war is based on the theory that users should be arrested because they are harming society, not because they may, due to drugs, not work as hard or as long or make as much money as they otherwise might. If a person makes $25k a year instead of $35k a year because heavy pot smoking made them less productive, it may be

Frequently Asked Questions about the War on Drugs

Noam Chomsky has also talked about the war on drugs as a means of social control. And finally, the self-interest of police departments that seek resources and power: In his 2015 book Chasing the Scream, journalist Johann Hari offers a remarkable anecdote from former New York City police officer Matthew Fogg.

The cost of the war on drugs – The Sydney Morning Herald

The cost of the war on drugs Michael Duffy does the sums on the extent the Australian Government would be financially better off if we conceded that criminalisation of drug use was a lost cause

Why the war on drugs is a huge failure? – Mind Right

Smoke and Mirrors: The war on Drugs and The Politics of

The war on drugs costs the government more than the Commerce, Interior, and State departments combined. The drug war clogs the courts to the point of breakdown. It keeps more Americans in Federal prison for drug crimes than were in for all crimes put together in 1980. It criminalizes a generation of African-American men; this is the main reason

Social Consequences of the War on Drugs: The Legacy of

The war on drugs has also produced an unprecedented racial disproportion of inmates in the prison system. Funds spent on prison-building have diverted resources from education and social programs, such that citizens are less able to compete in an increasingly competitive marketplace, as skills are less and employment opportunities become limited.

The war on drugs, explained | Operation Clean Recovery

Enforcing the war on drugs costs the US more than $51 billion each year, according to the Drug Policy Alliance. As of 2012, the US had spent $1 trillion on anti-drug efforts. The spending estimates don’t account for the loss of potential taxes on currently illegal substances.

A cost benefit analysis for the war on drugs? The

A cost benefit analysis for the war on drugs? The government just says “no”! Transform have been trying without success to get the government to publish a cost/benefit analysis of its drugs policy since late last year. This, remember, is a government that promised “evidence based” policies so it’s reasonable to expect them to actually

31 War On Drugs Statistics & Facts That Are Hard to Believe

The funds were used on prevention, treatment, law enforcement activities, and international counternarcotics, war on drugs cost statistics suggest. The requested budget for 2021 is $35.69 billion. 20. Overdose is the leading cause of death among individuals released from prison.

Is the war on drugs succeeding? – Harvard Law Today

The war on drugs, Schmoke has said, is America’s “domestic Vietnam.” “The problem of substance abuse is more a public health problem than a criminal justice problem,” he says. “The drug traffickers can be beaten and the public health of the United States can be improved if we are willing to substitute common sense for rhetoric, myth

The war on drugs, explained – Vox

Enforcing the war on drugs costs the US more than $51 billion each year, according to the Drug Policy Alliance. As of 2012, the US had spent $1 trillion on anti-drug efforts.

Four Decades and Counting: The Continued Failure of the

The War on Drugs, begun under President Richard Nixon, continues to utilize policies of prohibition to achieve a variety of objectives. Spending on the war continues to cost U.S. taxpayers

Canada's Shocking War on Drugs: An Infographic

Canada’s Shocking War on Drugs: An Infographic. By now you’ve read plenty of our drug fact articles where we talk about how 47,000 Canadians die every year as a result of drug addiction, etc. With the onslaught of drugs like Fentanyl creating crisis in Alberta, or the new drug called W-18 that’s 100 times stronger than Fentanyl hitting

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How Much Money Has Been Spent On The War On Drugs? | Herb

According to the National Drug Control Policy, the federal American government spent $15 billion on the war on drugs in 2010. State and local governments add at least another $25 million to that . The USA is spending at a rate of $500 per second to sustain the war on drugs.

The War On Drugs: America's Biggest Blunder

The War On Drugs: America’s Biggest Blunder. in. Substance Abuse. on. . April 7, 2022 with. 6 Comments 7. The “war on drugs” has been going on for decades. There has been tremendous destruction to individuals, families, and entire communities in an effort to combat illegal drugs.

$1.5 Trillion Has Been Wasted on a Drug War that Hasn't

In your 2012 National Drug Control Strategy you admit that “the War on Drugs is an utter failure”. Here is a graph from an infographic touting your “Record of Reform” which your drug czar, Gil Kerlikowske, has provided us. This graph breaks down how you wasted my money in 2012.

The Texas War on Drugs – The Anti Hysteric

Many Texans surely don’t care about the drug war and feel it doesn’t affect them, but if they saw more statistics like “the economic cost of substance abuse in Texas for 2007 is estimated at $33.4 billion including lost productivity, crime and the criminal justice system, premature death and morbidity, and the cost of substance abuse

What Really Happened with War on Drugs? – SlideShare

The war on drugs has taken a massive cost in human lives, making the US the world’s largest prison population, but drugs remain widely available and treatment resources are insufficient. The US government spent trillions of dollars incarcerating non-violent drug offenders that pose barriers to employment and stability. Dr. Omer Hameed.

The War on Drugs, Essay Example | essays.io

The cost of police resources to fight the drug war is exorbitant, but necessary. In order for a war against drugs to be successful, federal, local and state authorities must make sure that there a plenty of drug enforcement officers to make the appropriate arrests.

Who's Using and Who's Doing Time: Incarceration, the War

Since 1972, the number of people incarcerated has increased 5-fold without a comparable decrease in crime or drug use.1, 3 In fact, the decreased costs of opiates and stimulants and the increased potency of cannabis might lead one to an opposing conclusion.4 Given the politics of the war on drugs, skyrocketing incarceration rates are deemed a

PDF The War on Drugs and Jim Crow's the Most Wanted: A Social

The War on Drugs In June of 1971, President Nixon declared War on Drugs, to classify and regulate the use of drugs and other substances. This policy, as Drug Policy Alliance notes, “increased the size and presence of federal drug control agencies, and pushed through measures such as mandatory sentencing and no-knock warrants” (DPA).

"The War on Drugs" by David Jakubiec, Andrew Kilcer et al.

America is in an epic battle, not against a foreign country but to keep you and every other citizen from putting a certain list of chemicals in your body. Since President Nixon, this battle has been labeled “The War on Drugs”. This battle is extremely expensive: total cost to local, state and federal government equals $19.2 billion a year. In a country of approximately 300 million that equates

The Global War on Drugs | Global South Studies, U.Va.

The Global War on Drugs. The U.S.-led global War on Drugs (WoD) refers to the conflict and violence produced by the enforcement of prohibitionist policies on the manufacture, distribution, and consumption of banned substances commonly known as “illegal drugs.”. [1] After forty years of a militaristic approach to a public health problem

The War on Drugs as Structural Racism – Penn LDI

South then read the controversial Ehrlichman quote that appeared in the April 2016 issue of Harper’s magazine in an article about the failure of the “War on Drugs” originally launched by President Nixon in 1971: “The Nixon campaign in 1968, and the Nixon White House after that, had two enemies: the antiwar left and Black people,” Ehrlichman said.

The War on Drugs Flashcards | Quizlet

the War on Drugs has cost the US $_____ in 40 years. 1 trillion. negative consequences of the war on drugs (article):-overloading criminal justice systems-overwhelming the courts-fuelling prison overcrowding-exacerbating health problems. the majority of small-scale drug offenders have _____ (article)

PDF The Alternative World Drug Report

The War on Drugs: Count the Costs and Explore the Alternatives “The global ‘war on drugs’ has been fought for 50 years, without preventing the long-term trend of increasing drug supply and use. Beyond this failure, the UN Office on Drugs and Crime has also identified the many serious ‘unintended negative consequences’ of the drug war.

War On Drugs Essay – Examples of Research Papers Topics

The Laws Behind the War on Drugs . Introduction The United States incarcerates more people than any other nation in the world (Mann). The prison system costs the United States over 80 billion dollars in operation costs, and the majority of prisoners are incarcerated for non-violent drug crimes, many of which are first-time, non-violent offenders that are incarcerated for decades (ibid).

War On Drugs Pros And Cons – HRF

Pros of War on Drugs. Given that the campaign is already executed in different countries, you should be aware of the basic benefits that this campaign is able to provide. These benefits are as follow: 1. Crimes done by drug addicts will lessen. Since the distribution is highly prohibited, the number of crimes committed by drug addicts will

When did Reagan start the war on drugs?

What is the War on Drugs and Did it Succeed? – A Better

The War on Drugs. Later on in the 1970s, President Nixon decided to take a strong stance on the proclaimed “drug problem” in America. Drug use was increasing in the 1960s due to a boost in counterculture and a rise in the popularity of illegal drug use. Even a Harvard professor, Timothy Leary, promoted the use of LSD during that time period.

The War on Drugs Public Policy | Essay Sample

The Network of Reform Groups (1999) notes that 60% of costs that are spent on the illegal drug use are due to the black market and related crimes. It was also stated that the failing War on Drugs has created increased costs, which the community has to pay while considering illegal drugs (The Network of Reform Groups).

The War On Drugs Tickets | Vivid Seats

The War On Drugs Floor Seats. The War On Drugs floor seats can provide a once-in-a-lifetime experience. Often, floor seats/front row seats can be some of the most expensive tickets at a show. Sometimes Vivid Seats offers VIP The War On Drugs meet and greet tickets, which can cost more than front row seats or floor tickets.

War on Drugs | History & Mass Incarceration | Britannica

War on Drugs, the effort in the United States since the 1970s to combat illegal drug use by greatly increasing penalties, enforcement, and incarceration for drug offenders. The War on Drugs began in June 1971 when U.S. Pres. Richard Nixon decl